Han Confucian metaphysics formulated by
董仲舒 (Dong Zhongshu, 179-104 BC) in 《
春秋繁露》: Heaven is morally aware and reflects human virtue or vice through portents — eclipses, floods, and earthquakes are warnings, abundant harvests are approval. This justified the emperor's role as
天子 ('Son of Heaven') while also constraining him: misrule provoked Heaven's wrath, giving Confucian officials grounds to criticize the throne.
